The online catalog includes the most recent changes to courses and degree requirements that have been approved by the Faculty Senate, including changes that are not yet effective.
Department of Digital Technology and Culture
dtc.wsu.edu/
Morrill Hall 108 (Pullman campus)
509-335-0698
Professors, K. Christen (Pullman), D. Grigar (Vancouver), G. Turner-Rahman (Pullman); Professor (CT), J. Barber (Vancouver); Associate Professors A. Plemons (Tri-Cities); Associate Professors (CT), R. Gregory (Pullman), B. Grell (Vancouver), W. Luers (Vancouver), M. Rabby (Vancouver); Assistant Professors, D. Beverly-Porter (Pullman), J. Clapper (Pullman), E. Ortiz (Pullman); Assistant Professors (CT), A. Brave (Pullman), T. deVries (Global), P. Mudd (Tri-Cities), S. Park (Pullman), J. Riddle (Pullman), J. Sanders (Pullman); Lecturers, T. Buffington (Pullman), C. Dreger (Vancouver), L. Roper (Pullman), V. Varay (Pullman). Academic Advisors, T. Fordyce (Vancouver), A. Rocha (Pullman).
Students in Digital Technology and Culture (DTC) develop critical and creative thinking skills, cultural competencies, and digital expertise. The program offers courses in web design, animation, 3D modeling, multimedia and graphic design, social media, video production, game creation, augmented and virtual reality, and other emerging fields of study. Along with technical skills, students gain critical perspectives from diverse sources that prepare them for the complex needs of contemporary society on both a local and global level.
There is a strong focus on praxis – whereby students explore technological, cultural, and media theories and histories alongside multimedia creation. In addition, there is a focus on community-based learning – where students develop digital media projects in a collaborative environment for community-based organizations.
DTC students emerge from the program with diverse technical and media production expertise as well as essential skills like written and oral communication, teamwork, project management, and social ethics.
- Demonstrate culturally responsive competencies in working with digital media and technology for ethical and effective human interactions.
- Employ design principles in the creation of various forms of digital media and technology.
- Explore, analyze, and critique the ways digital media and technology function in multiple cultural contexts using diverse methodologies and perspectives.
- Demonstrate understanding of the histories of technological development, from local to global perspectives, and their implications for a variety of mediums.
- Utilize an interdisciplinary perspective to understand contemporary and future cultural impacts of digital media and technology.
- Communicate effectively, to diverse audiences, how and why digital media make meaning.
Schedules of Studies
Honors students complete the Honors College requirements which replace the UCORE requirements.
Creative Media and Digital Culture (Vancouver only) (120 Credits)
1) Recognize various forms of language processing and their implications for media authoring;
2) Know the basics of information architecture and knowledge management along with ways digital information can be structured for retrieval and archival purposes for different audiences; and
3) Synthesize media forms for multimedia contexts.
This option is available on the Vancouver campus. A student may be admitted to the DTC – Creative Media and Digital Culture Option upon making their intention known to the department. This option requires 42 credits of major-specific course work.
| First Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| Communication [COMM] or Written Communication [WRTG] | 3 |
| HISTORY 105 [ROOT] | 3 |
| Humanities [HUM] | 3 |
| Foreign Language, if needed, or Electives1,2 | 6 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| DTC 101 [ARTS] | 3 |
| ENGLISH 101 [WRTG] | 3 |
| Foreign Language, if needed, or Electives1,2 | 6 |
| Quantitative Reasoning [QUAN] | 3 |
| Second Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| Biological Sciences [BSCI] with lab3 | 4 |
| DTC 201 | 3 |
| Social Sciences [SSCI] | 3 |
| Electives2 | 5 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| DTC 336 | 3 |
| Physical Sciences [PSCI] with lab3 | 4 |
| Electives2 | 8 |
| Complete Writing Portfolio | |
| Third Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| DTC 355 | 3 |
| DTC 356 [M] | 3 |
| Equity and Justice [EQJS] | 3 |
| Approved Non-DTC Upper-Division Courses4 | 6 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| Diversity [DIVR] | 3 |
| DTC 375 [M] | 3 |
| DTC Electives5 | 6 |
| Approved Non-DTC Upper-Division Course4 | 3 |
| Fourth Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| DTC Electives5 | 6 |
| Electives2 | 9 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| DTC 497 [CAPS] | 3 |
| Electives2 | 12 |
Footnotes
| 1 | Two years of high school foreign language or at least two semesters of college-level foreign language are required by the College of Arts and Sciences for graduation. |
| 2 | Electives must include sufficient 300-400-level coursework to meet the University requirement of 40 credits of upper-division coursework. |
| 3 | To meet College of Arts and Sciences requirements, students must complete 1 additional lab credit of [BSCI] or [PSCI] for a total of 8 credits (2 labs). |
| 4 | Approved Non-DTC Upper-Division Courses (9 credits): Any 300-400 level courses outside of DTC approved by the DTC advisor or a faculty member. These courses are meant to expand a student’s interdisciplinary perspective on media, technology, and culture. |
| 5 | DTC Electives (12 credits): Any DTC course not included in the degree requirements, except for DTC 498 and DTC 499, is eligible to be a DTC elective. |
Digital Cinema, Sound, and Animation (Pullman only) (120 Credits)
This option is available on the Pullman campus. A student may be admitted to the DTC – Digital Cinema, Sound, and Animation Option upon making their intention known to the department. This option requires 42 credits of major-specific coursework.
| First Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| DTC 101 [ARTS] | 3 |
| ENGLISH 101 [WRTG] | 3 |
| Quantitative Reasoning [QUAN] | 3 |
| Foreign Language, if needed, or Electives1,2 | 6 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| Communication [COMM] or Written Communication [WRTG] | 3 |
| DTC 201 | 3 |
| HISTORY 105 [ROOT] | 3 |
| Foreign Language, if needed, or Electives1,2 | 6 |
| Second Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| Biological Sciences [BSCI] with lab3 | 4 |
| DTC 206 [EQJS] or 475 [DIVR] | 3 |
| Humanities [HUM] | 3 |
| Electives2 | 5 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| DTC 208 | 3 |
| Physical Science [PSCI] with lab3 | 4 |
| Social Sciences [SSCI] | 3 |
| Electives2 | 5 |
| Complete Writing Portfolio | |
| Third Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| DTC 335 | 3 |
| DTC 354 [M] | 3 |
| Equity and Justice [EQJS] or Diversity [DIVR]4 | 3 |
| Electives2 | 6 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| DTC 301 [M] | 3 |
| DTC Electives5 | 6 |
| Electives2 | 6 |
| Fourth Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| DTC 491 | 3 |
| DTC Electives5 | 6 |
| Electives2 | 6 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| DTC 497 [CAPS] | 3 |
| DTC 498 or 435 | 3 |
| Electives2 | 9 |
| Senior Exit Survey | |
Footnotes
| 1 | Two years of high school foreign language or at least two semesters of college-level foreign language are required by the College of Arts and Sciences for graduation. |
| 2 | Electives must include sufficient 300-400-level coursework to meet the University requirement of 40 credits of upper-division coursework. |
| 3 | To meet College of Arts and Sciences requirements, students must complete 1 additional lab credit of [BSCI] or [PSCI] for a total of 8 credits (2 labs). |
| 4 | Depending on whether a student takes DTC 206 [EQJS] or DTC 475 [DIVR] for their degree requirement, they should take a UCORE option that fulfills the opposite requirement in their third year. |
| 5 | DTC Electives (12 credits): Any DTC course not included in the degree requirements is eligible to be a DTC elective. |
Digital Design (Pullman and Tri-Cities only) (120 Credits)
This option is available on the Pullman and Tri-Cities campuses. A student may be admitted to the DTC – Digital Design Option upon making their intention known to the department. This option requires 42 credits of major-specific coursework.
| First Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| DTC 101 [ARTS] | 3 |
| English 101 [WRTG] | 3 |
| Quantitative Reasoning [QUAN]1,2 | 3 |
| Foreign Language, if needed, or Electives | 6 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| Communication [COMM] or Written Communication [WRTG] | 3 |
| DTC 201 | 3 |
| HISTORY 105 [ROOT] | 3 |
| Foreign Language, if needed, or Electives1,2 | 6 |
| Second Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| Biological Sciences [BSCI] with lab3 | 4 |
| DTC 206 [EQJS] or 475 [DIVR] | 3 |
| Humanities [HUM] | 3 |
| Electives2 | 5 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| DTC 209 or 354 | 3 |
| Physical Sciences [PSCI] with lab3 | 4 |
| Social Sciences [SSCI] | 3 |
| Electives2 | 5 |
| Complete Writing Portfolio | |
| Third Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| DTC 336 | 3 |
| DTC 355 or 375 [M]4 | 3 |
| Equity and Justice [EQJS] or Diversity [DIVR]5 | 3 |
| Electives2 | 6 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| DTC 301 [M] | 3 |
| DTC Electives6 | 6 |
| Electives2 | 6 |
| Fourth Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| DTC 436 | 3 |
| DTC Electives6 | 6 |
| Electives6 | 6 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| DTC 497 [CAPS] | 3 |
| DTC 498 or 4787 | 3 |
| Electives2 | 9 |
| Senior Exit Survey | |
Footnotes
| 1 | Two years of high school foreign language or at least two semesters of college-level foreign language are required by the College of Arts and Sciences for graduation. |
| 2 | Electives must include sufficient 300-400-level coursework to meet the University requirement of 40 credits of upper-division coursework. |
| 3 | To meet College of Arts and Sciences requirements, students must complete 1 additional lab credit of [BSCI] or [PSCI] for a total of 8 credits (2 labs). |
| 4 | Students who elect to take DTC 355 for this requirement will need to incorporate another Writing in the Major [M] course into their DTC Electives or General Electives. |
| 5 | Depending on whether a student takes DTC 206 [EQJS] or DTC 475 [DIVR] for their degree requirement, they should take a UCORE option that fulfills the opposite requirement in their third year. |
| 6 | DTC Electives (12 credits): Any DTC course not included in the degree requirements is eligible to be a DTC elective. One DTC elective course (3 credits) may be substituted by DTC 498 or 499. |
| 7 | Students who elect to take DTC 478 need to have taken DTC 355 as a prerequisite. |
Game Studies (Pullman only) (120 Credits)
This option is available on the Pullman campus. A student may be admitted to the DTC – Game Studies Option upon making their intention known to the department. This option requires 42 credits of major-specific coursework.
| First Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| DTC 101 [ARTS] | 3 |
| ENGLISH 101 [WRTG] | 3 |
| Quantitative Reasoning [QUAN] | 3 |
| Foreign Language, if needed, or Electives1,2 | 6 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| Communication [COMM] or Written Communication [WRTG] | 3 |
| DTC 201 | 3 |
| HISTORY 105 [ROOT] | 3 |
| Foreign Language, if needed, or Electives1,2 | 6 |
| Second Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| Biological Sciences [BSCI] with lab3 | 4 |
| DTC 206 [EQJS] or 475 [DIVR] | 3 |
| Humanities [HUM] | 3 |
| Electives2 | 5 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| DTC 354 [M] | 3 |
| Physical Sciences [PSCI] with lab3 | 4 |
| Social Sciences [SSCI] | 3 |
| Electives2 | 5 |
| Complete Writing Portfolio | |
| Third Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| DTC 335 | 3 |
| DTC 392 | 3 |
| Equity and Justice [EQJS] or Diversity [DIVR]4 | 3 |
| Electives2 | 6 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| DTC 301 [M] | 3 |
| DTC Electives5 | 6 |
| Electives2 | 6 |
| Fourth Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| DTC 492 | 3 |
| DTC Electives5 | 6 |
| Electives2 | 6 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| DTC 497 [CAPS] | 3 |
| DTC 498 or 476 | 3 |
| Electives2 | 9 |
| Senior Exit Survey | |
Footnotes
| 1 | Two years of high school foreign language or at least two semesters of college-level foreign language are required by the College of Arts and Sciences for graduation. |
| 2 | Electives must include sufficient 300-400-level coursework to meet the University requirement of 40 credits of upper-division coursework. |
| 3 | To meet College of Arts and Sciences requirements, students must complete 1 additional lab credit of [BSCI] or [PSCI] for a total of 8 credits (2 labs). |
| 4 | Depending on whether a student takes DTC 206 [EQJS] or DTC 475 [DIVR] for their degree requirement, they should take a UCORE option that fulfills the opposite requirement in their third year. |
| 5 | DTC Electives (12 credits): Any DTC course not included in the degree requirements is eligible to be a DTC elective. One DTC elective course (3 credits) may be substituted by DTC 498 or 499. |
Web Design and Development (Pullman only) (120 Credits)
This option is available on the Pullman campus. A student may be admitted to the DTC – Web Development Option upon making their intention known to the department. This option requires 42 credits of major-specific coursework.
| First Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| DTC 101 [ARTS] | 3 |
| ENGLISH 101 [WRTG] | 3 |
| Quantitative Reasoning [QUAN] | 3 |
| Foreign Language, if needed, or Electives1,2,3 | 6 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| DTC 201 | 3 |
| DTC 202 [COMM] | 3 |
| HISTORY 105 [ROOT] | 3 |
| Foreign Language, if needed, or Electives1,2,3 | 6 |
| Second Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| Biological Sciences [BSCI] with lab4 | 4 |
| DTC 206 [EQJS] or 475 [DIVR] | 3 |
| Humanities [HUM] | 3 |
| Electives2,3 | 5 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| DTC 330 or 331 | 3 |
| Physical Sciences [PSCI] with lab4 | 4 |
| Social Sciences [SSCI] | 3 |
| Electives2,3 | 5 |
| Complete Writing Portfolio | |
| Third Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| DTC 301 [M] | 3 |
| DTC 355 | 3 |
| Equity and Justice [EQJS] or Diversity [DIVR]5 | 3 |
| Electives2,3 | 6 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| DTC 477 | 3 |
| DTC Electives3,6 | 6 |
| Electives2,3 | 6 |
| Fourth Year | |
| First Term | Credits |
| DTC Electives3,6 | 6 |
| Electives2,3 | 9 |
| Second Term | Credits |
| DTC 497 [CAPS] | 3 |
| DTC 498 or 4787 | 3 |
| Electives2,3 | 9 |
| Senior Exit Survey | |
Footnotes
| 1 | Two years of high school foreign language or at least two semesters of college-level foreign language are required by the College of Arts and Sciences for graduation. |
| 2 | Electives must include sufficient 300-400-level coursework to meet the University requirement of 40 credits of upper-division coursework. |
| 3 | Electives or DTC Electives must include an additional [M] course to meet the University requirements of two [M] courses. |
| 4 | To meet College of Arts and Sciences requirements, students must complete 1 additional lab credit of [BSCI] or [PSCI] for a total of 8 credits (2 labs). |
| 5 | Depending on whether a student takes DTC 206 [EQJS] or DTC 475 [DIVR] for their degree requirement, they should take a UCORE option that fulfills the opposite requirement in their third year. |
| 6 | DTC Electives (12 credits): Any DTC course not included in the degree requirements is eligible to be a DTC elective. One DTC elective course (3 credits) may be substituted by DTC 498 or 499. |
| 7 | Students who elect to take DTC 478 need to have taken DTC 355 as a prerequisite. |
Minors
Digital Technology and Culture
A minor in DTC requires 18 credits including DTC 101, 201, 336, 355, and 375, plus one more 3-hour course from the following: DTC 335, 356, 435, 477, 478, ART 331, 332, 333, 363, 434, or 435. 9 credits of upper-division work must be earned in WSU courses or through WSU-approved education abroad or educational exchange courses.
Certificates
Game Studies and Design Certificate (Pullman and Vancouver only)
The Game Studies and Design Certificate prepares students for conceptualizing and producing video games and gameful environments with a special focus on genres such as educational, serious, and games for change. Completion of the Game Studies and Design Certificate requires a total of 15 credits. Students are required to complete DTC 392 or 476 and 492 plus 9 credits chosen from one of two options. Students who select the Design Option select three courses (9 credits) from DTC 335, 336, 354, and 435. Students who select the Development Option select three courses (9 credits) from DTC 338, 355, 477, and 478.
Graphic Design Certificate (Pullman only)
The Graphic Design Certificate prepares students to be premiere visual communicators working across digital and print mediums in a variety of contexts including industry, non-profit, and freelance areas. Completion of the Graphic Design Certificate requires a total of 15 credits. Students are required to complete DTC 201 and ART 102 plus 9 credits chosen from the following options: DTC 336, 436; ART 332, 433.
Social Media Certificate (Pullman and Vancouver only)
The Social Media Certificate prepares students for working in the emerging field of digital communication and product promotion. It covers social media in a variety of aspects, including its role in advertising and public relations, how campaigns work, and the relational nature of online engagement. Completion of the Social Media Certificate requires a total of 15 credits. Required courses: COMSTRAT 312, 380; DTC 330, 331; and a minimum of one course from DTC 336, 354, 355.
Courses
The online catalog includes the most recent changes to courses and degree requirements that have been approved by the Faculty Senate, including changes that are not yet effective. Courses showing two entries of the same number indicate that the course information is changing. The most recently approved version is shown first, followed by the older version, in gray, with its last-effective term preceding the course title. Courses shown in gray with only one entry of the course number are being discontinued. Course offerings by term can be accessed by clicking on the term links when viewing a specific campus catalog.
Digital Technology And Culture (DTC)
101 [ARTS] Introduction to Digital Technology and Culture 3 Inquiry into digital media, including origins, theories, forms, applications, and impact with a focus on authoring and critiquing multimodal texts. Typically offered Fall and Spring.
201 [ARTS] Tools and Methods for Digital Technology 3 An introduction to the tools and methods of production for multimedia authoring in digital contexts.
202 [COMM] Internet Revolutions 3 Introduction to the technologies and technical cultures that gave rise to the global information infrastructure supporting contemporary communication platforms. Typically offered Fall and Spring.
204 Introduction to Text Analysis 3 Introduction to computational and statistical text analysis using the open source programming language R; designed for students with no prior experience with programming but who wish to extend their methodological tool kit to include quantitative and computational approaches to the study of text. (Crosslisted course offered as DTC 204, DATA 204.) Typically offered Fall, Spring, and Summer.
206 [DIVR] Digital Inclusion 3 Examination of global reach of digital environments, structures, and tools with focus on inclusion in terms of access, availability, affordability, adoption, and application across cultures. Typically offered Fall.
208 [ARTS] Introduction to Digital Cinema 3 A practical introduction to the technological and cultural transformations driving the evolution of cinematic techniques from the birth of motion pictures to emerging technology. Typically offered Fall.
209 [COMM] Visualizing Data 3 Introduction to the tools and methods of visually communicating data for diverse audiences and scenarios. (Crosslisted course offered as DTC 209, DATA 209.) Typically offered Fall and Spring.
301 [M] Professional Preparation 3 Development of materials and skills to prepare for entry into technology or media professions. Typically offered Fall and Spring.
330 Social Media Case Studies 3 Inquiry into ways businesses and individuals use social media as a marketing tool with special emphasis on media impact. Typically offered Spring.
331 Social Media Practices 3 Inquiry into social media practices from a ground-up approach, focusing on social media message creation and consumption; online self-presentation; online relationships; reputation management; social media data analysis. Typically offered Fall.
335 3D Digital Animation 3 3D digital animation for creative and professional productions, art skills, story-telling and team problem-solving techniques. Typically offered Fall and Spring.
336 Multimedia Design 3 Course Prerequisite: DTC 201. Design practices and process for composing for a multimedia environment including color, pattern, and shape. Typically offered Fall and Spring.
338 Special Topics in Digital Technology and Culture V 1-3 May be repeated for credit; cumulative maximum 6 credits. Major trends or artists in digital technology and culture. Typically offered Fall and Spring.
354 [ARTS] [M] Digital Storytelling 3 Nonlinear, multi-linear, and interactive narrative using elements of creative writing such as character, dialog, setting, plot and image. (Crosslisted course offered as DTC 354, ENGLISH 354.) Typically offered Fall and Spring.
355 Introduction to Web Design and Development 3 Introduction to design, development, and coding for the world wide web and interactive media. Typically offered Fall, Spring, and Summer.
356 [M] Information Structures 3 Course Prerequisite: DTC 101. Social and cultural role of information; research with electronic sources; production, validation, storage, retrieval, evaluation, use, impact of electronic information. Typically offered Fall and Spring.
375 [M] Language, Texts and Technology 3 Course Prerequisite: DTC 101. Relationship between technology and communication; writing practices from a historical point of view. Typically offered Fall and Spring.
392 Video Games Theories and Histories 3 History and theory of video games with a focus on innovation and cultural impact. Typically offered Spring.
435 Advanced Animation 3 Course Prerequisite: DTC 335. Advanced investigation of tools and methods for 2D and 3D digital animation. Typically offered Fall and Spring.
436 Advanced Multimedia Design 3 Course Prerequisite: DTC 336. Advanced design principles and projects in digital media; projects include visual, sound, haptic, and interactive experiences. Typically offered Spring.
475 [DIVR] Digital Diversity 3 Cultural impact of digital media in cultural contexts; issues of race, class, gender, sexuality online. Typically offered Fall, Spring, and Summer.
476 Digital Strategies 3 Examines multiple digital strategies for engagement with immersive and emerging technologies.
477 Advanced Web Design and Development 3 Course Prerequisite: DTC 355. Advanced web development and coding for creating interactive media and websites. Typically offered Fall and Spring.
478 Usability and Interface Design 3 Course Prerequisite: DTC 355. Design of websites using best practices of visual literacy, interface architecture, and usability. Typically offered Fall and Spring.
491 Advanced Digital Cinema 3 Course Prerequisite: DTC 201 or 208. Exploration of advanced techniques, theories, and aesthetic strategies of cinema in the age of digital media. Typically offered Spring.
492 Engines and Platforms 3 Course Prerequisite: DTC 355. A study of software platforms and engines used for media design, with special focus on intuitive tools, rapid work flow, multimedia platform environments, and asset management. Typically offered Spring.
497 [CAPS] Senior Seminar 3 Course Prerequisite: Completion of Junior Writing Portfolio; admitted to the major in Digital Technology and Culture; senior standing. Major multimedia project for nonprofit organization or small business with special focus on project management, planning, and execution.
498 Internship V 1-6 May be repeated for credit; cumulative maximum 6 credits. Course Prerequisite: By department permission; admitted to the major in Digital Technology and Culture; junior standing. Direct professional learning experiences in the area of digital media, technology, and culture. S, F grading.
499 Special Problems V 1-4 May be repeated for credit; cumulative maximum 12 credits. Course Prerequisite: Admitted to the major in Digital Technology and Culture; junior standing. Independent study conducted under the jurisdiction of an approving faculty member; may include independent research studies in technical or specialized problems; selection and analysis of specified readings; development of a creative project; or field experiences. S, F grading.
560 Critical Theories, Methods, and Practice in Digital Humanities 3 History, theory, and practice of digital humanities, with attention paid to how digital humanities are transforming disciplinary knowledge. (Crosslisted course offered as DTC 560, ENGLISH 560.)
561 Studies in Technology and Culture 3 Foundation examination of key concepts, tools, and possibilities afforded by engaging with technology through a critical cultural lens. (Crosslisted course offered as DTC 561, ENGLISH 561.)
- Digital Technology and Culture
Courses
- Digital Technology And Culture
Schedules of Studies
- Creative Media and Digital Culture (Vancouver only)
- Digital Cinema, Sound, and Animation (Pullman only)
- Digital Design (Pullman and Tri-Cities only)
- Game Studies (Pullman only)
- Web Design and Development (Pullman only)
Minors
- Digital Technology and Culture
Certificates
- Game Studies and Design Certificate (Pullman and Vancouver only)
- Graphic Design Certificate (Pullman only)
- Social Media Certificate (Pullman and Vancouver only)